Battle of Actium (31 BCE) was a decisive battle in the civil war between Octavian and Antonius and the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra who supported him.

Background

The civil war that continued after the death of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE was extremely devastating for the Roman state. The united forces of the three triumvirs: Mark Lepidus, Mark Antony and Octavian August destroyed the Republican army: Mark Brutus and Gaius Cassius in the Battle of Philippi in 42 BCE

In the empire, only the triumvirs dealt with the main cards. As it turned out, however, three ambitious men could not rule one state body together. Marcus Lepidus was the first to lose his influence. In 36 BCE, Octavian won over to his side the army of Lepidus, who was deprived of all influence and who lost all office except the position of the high priest (Pontifex Maximus). There are only two triumvirs left on the stage.

At that time, in the east, Mark Antony waged an unsuccessful war with the Parthians. The unsuccessful struggles in the east were fully compensated by the successes of Octavian, who conquered Panonia in 35 BCE and successfully completed the mission in Dalmatia the following year. In addition, Antony married (according to Egyptian custom) the queen of Egypt Cleopatra VII and divorced Octavian’s sister, Octavia, which was widely criticized in Rome. From then on, the triumvirs broke off contact with each other and began to pursue an increasingly aggressive policy.

Octavian, having great influence in Rome, persuaded the Vestals to give him Antony’s will, which showed that he bequeathed some eastern provinces to his and Cleopatra’s children, including Caesarion, son of Cleopatra and Julius Caesar. In addition, the Senate at the end of 32 BCE officially deprived Antony of consular power and declared war on the Cleopatra regime. These facts led to another civil war.

Mark Antony tried to take the initiative into his own hands, wanting to invade Italy, but at the end of 32 BCE, Agrippa’s large fleet in the Mediterranean Sea forced him to abandon the plan. He withdrew for the winter to the Greek city of Patrae, and his fleet docked in the Ambracian Bay. Then Octavian came out with the initiative of a peaceful settlement of the conflict and organizing a conference, which Antony, however, strongly rejected.

The following months of 31 BCE passed without major events or direct clashes. Marcus Agrippa – Octavian’s friend and commander – led smaller raids on Greek ports, and Octavian landed with his army north of Antony’s camp. Antony waited for the support of his other Mediterranean units, but under the influence of Cleopatra, he decided to withdraw his main forces to Egypt and put the remaining troops in strongly fortified centres.

Hearing about these plans, August decided to block the way for Antony and Cleopatra at the exit from the Gulf.

Forces

Seen from outer space, the Ambracian Bay, at the entrance of which the battle took place.

Octavian’s forces consisted of about 400 warships, 20,000 marines and 40,000 heavy infantry. Naval fleet Octavian was mostly light units – liburna, which were much less effective than three-row and four-row ships Antony. However, August’s lightships were very manoeuvrable and fast, which made it easier to command and form lines. In addition, in a huge crush, it was much easier for them to manoeuvre and squeeze between the huge three- and four-row of Antony.

Antony and Cleopatra’s forces are around 170 large turreted warships and 60 Cleopatra units. About 20,000 soldiers, 2,000 archers and 19 legions on land were embarked on the ships. In theory, Mark Antony had a staggering 100,000 troops on land, but it is worth noting that they were spread all over the east, from Greece to Egypt, so there were probably about 40,000-foot soldiers ready for the Battle of Actium.

Antony’s plan was relatively simple, he wanted to use his strongest part of the fleet to hit the centre and break through the enemy line. Then, having sailed to Egypt, he would have gathered his legions scattered throughout the east and given Octavian a major battle in his territory.

Plutarch of Chaeronea reports that one of Antony’s centurions opposed the idea of ​​naval combat. The soldier was to address the commander with these words:

Imperator, why dost thou distrust these wounds and this sword and put thy