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Septimia Zenobia was the wife of the king of Palmyra – Odenatus, after his death in 267 CE, she tried to strengthen the position of her underage son Vaballat. Initially, she sought an agreement with subsequent emperors.
Ultimately, however, thanks to a skilful policy, Zenobia led to a strong expansion in the region and enjoyed full power in the eastern territories of the Roman Empire.
Origin and family
Her face was dark and of a swarthy hue, her eyes were black and powerful beyond the usual wont, her spirit divinely great, and her beauty incredible. So white were her teeth that many thought that she had pearls in place of teeth. Her voice was clear and like that of a man.
– Historia Augusta, 30.15-16
The exact date of Zenobia’s birth is unknown, but it is believed that it was around CE 240. Her Roman name was Julia Aurelia Zenobia. In turn, the girl’s Palmyra name is Bat-Zabbai (spelled “Btzby”, which meant “Zabbai’s daughter”). On a daily basis, however, she used the name Zenobia, which meant “the one that comes from Zeus”. The nineteenth-century historian al-Tabari, who, however, often missed the truth in his accounts, claimed that the name of the queen was Na’ila al-Zabba. ‘ In contrast, Manichean sources call it “Tandi”.
Palmyra’s society consisted of Semitic tribes (mainly Arab and Aramaic), and Zenobia cannot be identified with any of these groups. As an inhabitant of Palmyra, she could have had both Aramaic and Arab ancestors. Information on this subject is sparse and contradictory. Nothing is known about her mother, and her father’s identity continues to be debated among historians. Zenobia herself believed that she was of direct lineage from the Ptolemaic dynasty and that she was a descendant of Cleopatra, but there is no certain evidence of this. Manichean sources mention that a certain “Nafsha” was the sister of “Queen Palmyra”, but the information is unclear and “Nafsha” may be Zenobia’s literary name as it is doubtful that she would have a sister.
The Story of Augustus details Zenobia’s early life in detail, although the credibility of this source is questionable. According to its content, the queen loved to hunt since childhood. Apparently, she had to come from the Palmyra aristocracy, for she had received an education appropriate for elite girls. According to the History of Augustus, in addition to her native Aramaic, she was also supposed to know Egyptian, Greek and even Latin. When she was about sixteen, she became the second wife of Odenatus, ruler of Palmyra. Little is known about the relations between the spouses, but Zenobia treated her husband quite “objectively”, primarily seeking to beget heirs:
For when once she had lain with him, she would refrain until the time of menstruation to see if she were pregnant; if not, she would again grant him an opportunity of begetting children.
– Historia Augusta, 30.12
The queen’s “endeavors” proved fruitful as she eventually bore her husband several sons and daughters.
Death of the husband and self-rule on behalf of the son
In the first centuries CE, Palmyra was a city subordinated to Rome and part of the province of Phenicia. In 260 CE, the Roman Emperor Valerian marched against the King of Persia, Shapur I, who invaded the eastern regions of the Roman Empire. Valerian, however, was defeated at the Battle of Edessa and taken prisoner. Odenatus remained loyal to the Roman Emperor Galien (son of Valerian), for which he was awarded the title of King of Palmyra. Thanks to his successes in the war against Persia, he was crowned King of the Kings of the East in 263 CE. Odenatus crowned his eldest son, Herodos, from his first marriage, whom he made co-ruler. In addition to the royal title, Odenatus received many honours from Rome. The most important, however, was the title “corrector totius orientis”, ie the governor of the entire east, thanks to which he ruled the Roman territories from the Black Sea to Palestine.
In 267, when Zenobia was about 20-30 years old, Odenatus and his eldest son were murdered on their return from a war expedition. According to The Story of Augustus, Odenatus was murdered by his cousin Meonius. The same source states that Zenobia conspired with Meonius and plotted the murder of her husband because she wanted Palmyra to be ruled by her own sons and not her stepson, but she does not blame Zenobia herself directly. The “Historia Augusta” also adds that Meonius murdered his cousin because of jealousy, lust for power and his own moral degeneration.
The first records that define Zenobia as the queen of Palmyra come from several years after her husband’s death. It is not known when exactly she started using this title, but probably from the same day her husband became king, however, she herself, as the king’s consort, remained in the background and was not mentioned in historical sources. Later sources mention that she accompanied her husband on military expeditions, boosting the morale of the soldiers and gaining the political influence that was needed in her later career.
The History of Augustus records that Meonius briefly proclaimed himself emperor before he was murdered by his own soldiers, although there is no evidence of his reign. Zenobia, on the other hand, was able t