Priestly colleges of ancient Rome

Roman religion was divided into two spheres: sacra – all cult practices directed by the community towards the gods; and auspicia – consulting Jupiter on the intended action (auspices). This opinion was read from the flight of birds, in which were hidden signs through which the gods expressed their approval or disapproval.

Initially, the king was in charge of religious life, supported by the colleges of priests, pontiffs and augurs. The pontiffs (pontifices) cared for sacra, that is, about the proper addressing of people to gods and people to people, when divine matters were also important. The Augur inaugurated and made sure the auspices were properly decorated so that all public activities would be done in accordance with Jupiter’s will.

The establishment of a priestly college is connected with the reign of the second Roman king – Numa Pompilius. In ancient Rome, there were a dozen or so priestly colleges (collegia or sodalitates), among which were four larger colleges (quattuor amplissima collegia). They were:

College of Pontiffs

It was the highest priesthood college. It watched over the formal aspect of religious worship and related state acts (they drew up a calendar, set the dates of holidays). The college consisted of, inter alia, flamens and vestals. A pontiff was a member of this college. It was chaired by Pontifex Maximus. They were to “build bridges” – that is, to connect the earthly with the divine. The term Pontifex Maximus was then passed on to the Roman emperors.

The Romans considered the college of pontiffs very ancient; it was also credited to the priest-king, who was Numa Pompilius. The original number of its members was five. It is believed that the first and chief pontiff was the king himself, only replaced in the republican times by pontifex maximus. Originally, only patricians were pontiffs; only in 300 BCE plebeians were admitted to the office. The number of pontiffs was raised to nine, except that five were commoners and only four were once-privileged. When Sulla carried out his reform of the entire state system, the number of pontiffs was raised once more, to fifteen, but again with the same proportion. The composition of the college in the last days of the republic was as follows: seven patricians, eight plebeians. The pontiffs were originally for life: in the event of the death of one member of the college, the rest elected his successor by co-option.

College of Augures

It was founded by King Numa Pompilius. it initially consisted of three patricians, one for each of the oldest Roman tribes. They were selected by co-opting to the college and held the office for life. The size of the college was gradually increased, first to six and then to nine members. In 300 BCE plebeians were admitted to the college, establishing that out of nine members of the college there would be four patricians and five plebeians.

In 104 BCE the law of Domitius (lex Domitia) was passed, which decided to abolish the co-optation of the augurs. From then on, new members of the college were selected by a vote of 17 tribus from among 35 existing members. Sulla abolished the Lex Domitia, restoring co-optation and simultaneously increasing the college size to fifteen augurs (seven plebeians and eight patricians). Co-optation was abolished again in 63 BCE.

Augurs from the signs of heaven and the flight of birds officially read the will of the gods. Their privilege was to wear a purple gown with a staff curved at the top – Lituus, which was drawn in a sacred circle – templum, inside which they observed divine signs: meteorological phenomena, flight of birds, behaviour animals and the events of the fortune-telling rite. Initially, the augurs were valued among the people, often advised and played a significant political role, as they could influence decisions about calling assemblies or taking war. Over time, their role weakened and was limited to religious functions: the inauguration of temples, various rooms, cities – assuring the favour of the gods. The last augurs were Wettius Agorius Prektextatus (died in 384 CE) and Ragonius Venustus (died in 390 CE).

Quindecimviri sacris faciundis

It was a college of fifteen (quindecim – quindecimvirs) members. It was created by Tarkwinius Pysny to care for the Sibyl Books, a collection of predictions from Sibyl, the Greek fortune teller from Kyme. They consulted and interpreted the Books at the request of the senate. Another task of this college was to oversee the worship of the gods who had been inducted into the Roman Pantheon.

Originally, the tasks of the college were performed by two patricians (duumviri or duoviri). Their number was increased in 367 BCE. by Lex Licinia Sexti to ten (hence the name sometimes decemvirs). The law stipulated that half of these priests were to be plebeians. In a mature republic, college members were selected by co-opting. In the 3rd century BCE several priests, possibly also quindecimviri, were elected by a tribute committee (comitia tributa).

Epuloni

This college – epulones – was in charge of arranging holidays, public banquets, festivals and games (ludi). Thus, the Epulons assumed duties that originally belonged to the pontiffs. The college was established in 196 BCE and from the beginning plebeians could belong to him. The need for this college arose from increasing celebrations and festivals that required appropriate experts.

Initially, there were three priests, with time reaching seven (also called septemviri epulonum, meaning “seven people epulones”). Julius Caesar temporarily expanded the college to ten members, returning to seven after his death.

Fraternities, colleges and priestly assistants

Alongside the colleges, there were various senior religious fraternities (sodalitates) that only operated in a specific ritual and often collectively (e.g., pontifex or augur often singly).

Arval Brotherhood (Arvales fratres, meaning “Farmers” or “Field Brothers”) was a college of 12 priests goddess Dea Dia and Mars. Their name comes from the word arvum. In the temple of the goddess, with the doors closed, the priests, praying for a good harvest, performed a dance that originated from fertility cults. They celebrated the festival in April – Ambarvalie, the description of its course has come to our time’s thanks to the fact that it was written in protocols called Acta. Dressed with ear garlands, they led the sacrificial animals around the fields. After killing them, they danced and sang songs in honour of Mars and the lares.

The Brotherhood’s Songs – Carmen Arvale (songs of the Arwalski Brotherhood) – were written during the Empire and are one of the oldest monuments of Latin poetry. The song begins with an invocation to the Lary three times (in the then utterance of “Lasów”). Then comes the call to Mars. Each of the five chant invocations was repeated three times, ending the prayer by repeating the exclamation Triumpe! five times (later in the development of the Triumphe! language). The text of the song below:

enos Lases iuvate – Lary, help us!
enos Lases iuvate
enos Lases iuvate
neve lue rue Marmar sins incurrere in pleoris – From hunger, moor, fire, save us all!
neve lue rue Marmar sins incurrere in pleoris
neve lue rue Marmar sins incurrere in pleoris
satur fu, fere Mars, limen sala, sta berber – Be full, fierce Mars, stop us from hunger and defeat!
satur fu, fere mars, limen hall, sta berber
satur fu, fere mars, limen hall, sta berber
semunis alterni advocapit conctos – Call us, make us all your servants!
semunis alterni advocapit conctos
semunis alterni advocapit conctos
enos Marmour iuvato – Mars, help us!
enos Marmour iuvato
enos Marmour iuvato
triumpe triumpe triumpe triumpe triumpe – Glory! Praise! Praise! Praise! Glory!¹

– Cytowska Maria, Roman literature. Archaic period, Warsaw 1996

Salii were members of one of the oldest colleges of priests in Ancient Rome, the priests of Mars. Initially, one, organized by Numa Pompilius on the Palatine – the so-called Salii Palatini, was later split into two. The second group was organized by Tullus Hostilius on the Quirinale near Porta Collina, they