{"id":98329,"date":"2021-11-09T17:10:15","date_gmt":"2021-11-09T16:10:15","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/?post_type=artykuly&#038;p=98329"},"modified":"2025-06-05T06:53:47","modified_gmt":"2025-06-05T04:53:47","slug":"homosexuality-in-ancient-rome","status":"publish","type":"artykuly","link":"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/article\/homosexuality-in-ancient-rome\/","title":{"rendered":"Homosexuality in ancient Rome"},"content":{"rendered":"<div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_87 ez-toc-wrap-left counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-custom ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title\" style=\"cursor:inherit\">Chapters<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/article\/homosexuality-in-ancient-rome\/#rape-and-regulation\" >Rape and regulation<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/article\/homosexuality-in-ancient-rome\/#homosexuality-in-the-legions\" >Homosexuality in the legions<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/article\/homosexuality-in-ancient-rome\/#lesbian-love\" >Lesbian love<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/article\/homosexuality-in-ancient-rome\/#the-time-of-christianity\" >The time of Christianity<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n<p>During the time of the Republic, Roman citizens had the right (<em>libertas<\/em>) to protect their bodies from physical coercion, including both corporal punishment and sexual violence. <span class=\"underlined\"><a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/roman-society\/\">Roman society<\/a> was typically patriarchal <\/span>and masculinity was based on the principle of governing not only oneself but also other persons, especially those from the lower class. <!--more--><\/p>\n    <div class=\"ramka_ze_zdjeciem float-right \"\n         style=\"\">\n\n        <div class=\"zdjecie\">\n            <img\n                class=\"ramka-ze-zdjeciem\"\n                src=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/05\/roman_sex1-400x360.jpg\"\n                srcset=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/05\/roman_sex1-400x360.jpg 400w, https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/05\/roman_sex1-640x576.jpg 640w, https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/05\/roman_sex1.jpg 1200w\"                alt=\"Roman cup showing a homosexual sex scene\"\n                width=\"250\"\n                height=\"225\"\n               \n               \n            \/>\n\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/05\/roman_sex1.jpg\"\n               rel=\"fancybox\"\n               title=\"Roman cup showing a homosexual sex scene.\">\n                <div class=\"iover\">\n                    <div class=\"zicon\">\n                        <i class=\"fa fa-search-plus\"><\/i>\n                    <\/div>\n                <\/div>\n            <\/a>\n        <\/div>\n\n                    <div class=\"opis\">\n                                Roman cup showing a homosexual sex scene.            <\/div>\n        \n        \n    <\/div>\n    \n<p>It was socially acceptable for a free-born Roman to have sex with a woman or a man assuming a <span class=\"underlined\">dominant role<\/span>. Both women and young men were perceived as natural objects of desire. Outside of <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/roman-society\/marriage-and-love-life-in-ancient-rome\/\">marriage<\/a>, a man could have sex with <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/roman-society\/social-layers-of-ancient-rome\/slavery-in-ancient-rome\/\">slaves<\/a>, prostitutes (who were usually slaves) and the so-called <em>infames<\/em> (the restricted man). It did not matter with which gender the Roman indulged in until he did not exceed certain social norms. For example, it was immoral to have sex with another citizen&#8217;s free-born wife, his daughter by marriage, his underage son, or the man himself.<\/p>\n<p>During imperial times, the fear of losing political freedom and submitting to power to the <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/article\/emperor-who-was-chosen-by-gods\/\">emperor<\/a> led to an increase in the frequency of free-born men assuming a passive position during sex. This is evidenced by the sources that mention a greater number of executions and corporal punishment imposed on free citizens of <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/roman-geography\/roman-cities\/rome-eternal-city\/\">Rome<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>Generally speaking, in civilian life homosexuality was rather rare and treated with disfavour (as evidenced by references in <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/roman-art-and-culture\/source-texts\/\">source texts<\/a>, where things that were outrageous, characteristic and not often encountered were recorded), and such relations were tolerated, as I have mentioned, if a Roman citizen was the active party (otherwise, Roman blood was contaminated. It is worth presenting here a controversial fragment from Caesar&#8217;s life. In 80 BCE, the young <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/biographies\/gaius-julius-caesar\/\">Gaius Julius Caesar<\/a> arrived at the court of Nicomedes IV, the <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/roman-constitution\/roman-kingdom\/roman-kings\/\">king<\/a> of Bithynia (north-western <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/roman-geography\/roman-provinces\/list-of-roman-provinces\/roman-asia-minor\/\">Asia Minor<\/a>). <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/curiosities\/caesar-queen-of-nicomedes\/\">Caesar<\/a> was sent there on the orders of <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/roman-constitution\/roman-republic\/roman-offices\/praetor\/\">praetor<\/a> Marcus Minucius Thermus from Asia to obtain a Bithynian fleet to help in the siege of the city of Mytilene on the island of Lesbos. He carried out this mission very well, and even managed to become closer friends with the king. It was often suggested &#8211; probably rightly &#8211; that they were lovers. From this, we can conclude that Caesar was bisexual, later known for his famous affairs with numerous women; bisexuality was a common phenomenon among the Roman aristocracy at the time. The episode in Bithynia was often the subject of satirical commentary, but it did not affect Caesar&#8217;s political career. The attack on Caesar stemmed from the fact that he was supposedly the passive party during intercourse. It was also important for a Roman to have sex with a man who was in some way socially inferior (younger, lower class, slave). In this way, the stereotype of the Roman, commander and conqueror was preserved. Homosexuality among men was tolerated and accepted, but it was certainly not the rule.<\/p>\n<p>So if any high-ranking free-born Roman allowed himself to be passive during intercourse, he risked mockery. Their victim was, among others <a title=\"Marcus Antony\" href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/biografie\/marek-antoniusz\/\">Mark Antony<\/a>, who had a long relationship with Publius Clodius. <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/biographies\/cicero\/\">Cicero<\/a> ridiculed this account in fourteen malicious <em>Philipics<\/em>, mentioning, inter alia, the escape of the future triumvir over the roofs from the angry father of his lover. Cicero had to pay his head for this mockery &#8211; when Marcus Antony came to power, he ordered his head to be cut off with a blunt knife, and the triumvir&#8217;s wife <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/article\/fulvia-first-unofficial-empress-of-rome\/\">Fulvia<\/a> additionally pierced the orator&#8217;s tongue with a nail.<\/p>\n<p>Loud &#8211; because very unusual &#8211; was also the relationship between Marcus Antony and his peer, Scribonia Curio. The lovers were not separated by the age difference, and they indulged in sex so passionately that Scriboni&#8217;s father placed his son under house arrest. It was to no avail, Marcus Antony broke in, through the roof, only to satisfy the need to meet his lover.<\/p>\n    <div class=\"ramka_ze_zdjeciem float-right \"\n         style=\"\">\n\n        <div class=\"zdjecie\">\n            <img\n                class=\"ramka-ze-zdjeciem\"\n                src=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/05\/sexual-scene-on-pompeian-mural-2-640x880.jpg\"\n                srcset=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/05\/sexual-scene-on-pompeian-mural-2-640x880.jpg 640w, https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/05\/sexual-scene-on-pompeian-mural-2-291x400.jpg 291w, https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/05\/sexual-scene-on-pompeian-mural-2.jpg 1200w\"                alt=\"Fresco from a suburban bathhouse in Pompeii showing sex in a triangle\"\n                width=\"300\"\n                height=\"413\"\n               \n               \n            \/>\n\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/05\/sexual-scene-on-pompeian-mural-2.jpg\"\n               rel=\"fancybox\"\n               title=\"A fresco from a suburban bathhouse in Pompeii showing sex in a triangle.\">\n                <div class=\"iover\">\n                    <div class=\"zicon\">\n                        <i class=\"fa fa-search-plus\"><\/i>\n                    <\/div>\n                <\/div>\n            <\/a>\n        <\/div>\n\n                    <div class=\"opis\">\n                                A fresco from a suburban bathhouse in <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/roman-geography\/roman-cities\/pompeii\/\">Pompeii<\/a> showing sex in a triangle.            <\/div>\n        \n        \n    <\/div>\n    \n<p>Not only Marcus Antony was famous for male lovers. <a title=\"Vitelius\" href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/biografie\/witeliusz\/\">Emperor Vitellius<\/a> always prepared an exclusive menu for his young lovers, aimed at stimulating the imagination and potency: wild boar liver, pheasant brain, flamingo tongues and dandelion moray. Known for his extremely audacious &#8211; not only sexual &#8211; practitioners of <a title=\"Kaligula\" href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/biografie\/cesarz-kaligula\/\">Caligula<\/a> his first official lover <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/biographies\/marcus-aemilius-lepidus\/\">Lepidus<\/a> married his sister (with whom he also remained in an active erotic relationship). However, Lepidus joined a group of conspirators who planned to deprive the emperor of power, for which he sentenced him to be beheaded. He then anointed Valenius <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/biographies\/gaius-valerius-catullus\/\">Catullus<\/a> as his official lover, who &#8211; whether out of his innate bragging rights or to lick his ruler &#8211; bragged all over the city that he was insanely sore after making love with <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/biographies\/caligula\/\">Caligula<\/a>. However, Caligula, with the consistent characteristic of the mentally ill, although he himself is strongly bisexual, ordered all homosexuals to be sent to hard labour in <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/roman-geography\/roman-provinces\/list-of-roman-provinces\/roman-sardinia-and-corsica\/\">Sardinia<\/a> one day.<br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/roman-constitution\/roman-republic\/roman-offices\/roman-dictator\/\">Roman dictator<\/a> <a title=\"Lucius Sulla\" href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/biografie\/lucjusz-korneliusz-sulla\/\">Lucius Sulla<\/a> was not free from homosexuality, too, he always took with him, for every war and expedition, a host of his young lover.<\/p>\n<p>A man or boy who had a passive role in sex was <b>defined in various ways<\/b>: <em>cinaedus<\/em> (derogatory term for a deviant), <em>pathicus<\/em> (&#8220;dumbass&#8221;), <em>exoletus<\/em>, <em>concubinus<\/em> (&#8220;male concubin&#8221;), <em>spintria<\/em>, <em>puer<\/em> (&#8220;boy&#8221;), <em>pullus<\/em> (&#8220;chick&#8221;), <em>pusio<\/em>, <em>delicatus<\/em> (especially the phrase <em>puer delicatus<\/em>, meaning &#8220;filigree boy&#8221; was used), <em>mollis<\/em> (&#8220;soft&#8221;), <em>tener<\/em> (&#8220;gentle&#8221;), <em>debilis<\/em> (&#8220;weak&#8221; or &#8220;disabled&#8221;), <em>effeminatus<\/em>, <em>discinctus<\/em> (&#8220;scantily clad&#8221;), <em>morbosus<\/em> (&#8220;sick&#8221;).<\/p>\n<p>Despite the fact that the Romans viewed marriage as a heterosexual relationship for procreation, in the early Empire, some homosexual couples managed to get married in the company of friends. Marcjalis and Juwenalis mention such weddings. <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/roman-constitution\/roman-law\/\">Roman law<\/a> naturally did not recognize such a relationship as legally binding, but Juvenal in one of his satires notes that publicizing such events could eventually legalize them.<\/p>\n<p>Some historical sources say that <a title=\"Nero\" href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/biografie\/neron\/\">Emperor Nero<\/a> was married three times: twice as a bride (with the liberated Pythagoras and with an unknown person), and the third as the groom (with <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/curiosities\/sporus-beloved-of-nero\/\">Sporus<\/a>). Sporus was a Roman boy who liked Emperor <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/biographies\/nero\/\">Nero<\/a> because he reminded him of his late wife Poppaea Sabina. Nero ordered Sporus to be castrated and in the fall of 66 CE, during the emperor&#8217;s journey through <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/article\/greece-birth-of-city\/\">Greece<\/a>, he married him. No sources say whether Sporus reciprocated Nero&#8217;s feelings. Wedding ceremonies reportedly included dowry and the wearing of a wedding veil. Despite the fact that Roman sources were hostile to the issue of Nero&#8217;s marriages, Cassius Dio mentions that society saw the emperor&#8217;s artistic performances as worse than weddings.<br \/>\nIn the 3rd century CE, <a title=\"Heliogabal\" href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/biografie\/heliogabal\/\">Emperor Elagabalus<\/a> was to stand on a wedding carpet as a bride with a Greek slave &#8211; Hierocles. Officially, their relationship naturally had no legal force. Hierocles became the emperor&#8217;s favourite when he fell from the chariot in front of the imperial lodge during the Games, and his helmet slipped off his head, revealing the face of the coachman. The teenage emperor was to be delighted with his beautiful blonde hair and he immediately ordered him to be brought to the palace, bestowing his favours. The emperor was to say then: &#8220;I am glad to be called the mistress, wife, queen of Hierocles.&#8221;<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"rape-and-regulation\"><\/span>Rape and regulation<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n    <div class=\"ramka_ze_zdjeciem float-right \"\n         style=\"\">\n\n        <div class=\"zdjecie\">\n            <img\n                class=\"ramka-ze-zdjeciem\"\n                src=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/08\/falus.jpg\"\n                                alt=\"Phallus-shaped Greco-Roman amulets - the so-called fascinus\"\n                width=\"300\"\n                height=\"208\"\n               \n               \n            \/>\n\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/08\/falus.jpg\"\n               rel=\"fancybox\"\n               title=\"Greco-Roman phallus-shaped amulets &#8211; the so-called fascinus.\">\n                <div class=\"iover\">\n                    <div class=\"zicon\">\n                        <i class=\"fa fa-search-plus\"><\/i>\n                    <\/div>\n                <\/div>\n            <\/a>\n        <\/div>\n\n                    <div class=\"opis\">\n                                Greco-Roman phallus-shaped amulets &#8211; the so-called <b><em>fascinus<\/em><\/b>.            <\/div>\n        \n        \n    <\/div>\n    \n<p>Generally, any coercion or rape was severely punished under Roman law. The first <em>lex<\/em> dates back to the 2nd century BCE and applies to both same-sex and bisexual acts. The law applied to free people as well as the so-called <em>infamis<\/em> or <em>suspiciosus<\/em> &#8211; a term for people with lower status and rights. <em><b>Lex Julia de vi publica<\/b><\/em>, a law adopted in the 3rd century CE but dating back to the times of Julius Caesar&#8217;s dictatorship, unequivocally defines rape as a forced rapprochement on &#8220;a boy, woman and anyone &#8220;. The punishment that <em>Lex<\/em> provided was the death penalty. In turn, sex with a slave of another citizen was considered a form of theft or illegal appropriation of property.<\/p>\n<p>Seneca the Elder cites a hypothetical case of a teenager (<em>adulescens<\/em>) being raped by his 10 peers. The writer and scholar, however, emphasize the effectiveness of Rome&#8217;s legislative bodies and the possibility of enforcing legal norms. Another crime is the rape of a free Roman citizen (<em>ingenuus<\/em>), which led a disgraced Roman to <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/roman-constitution\/roman-law\/suicide-in-world-of-romans\/\">suicide<\/a>. Such a crime was considered <span class=\"underlined\"><b>one of the worst crimes<\/b> that could be committed alongside patricide, rape of a virgin and sacking of a temple<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The lack of self-control, especially in managing his own sex life, indicated that the man was unable to properly control other people. In turn, succumbing to a too-low level of pleasure threatened to erode a citizen&#8217;s personal culture.<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"homosexuality-in-the-legions\"><\/span>Homosexuality in the legions<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A Roman soldier, like every free and self-respecting Roman, was socially obligated to discipline, also in matters of sexuality. In the Roman military of the Republic period, any <b>manifestations of homosexuality were severely exterminated<\/b>. The &#8220;active&#8221; person most often exposed himself to flogging and expulsion from the legions, while the &#8220;passive&#8221; person was sentenced to death &#8211; according to <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/biographies\/polybius\/\">Polybius<\/a> by beating (<em>fustuarium<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>Emperor <a title=\"Octavian August\" href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/biografie\/oktawian-august\/\">Octavian Augustus<\/a> (27 BCE &#8211; 14 CE) introduced a <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/roman-army\/life-of-a-roman-legionary\/\">legionary<\/a> marriage ban &#8211; a law that was in force for almost two centuries. In return, the soldiers could enjoy prostitutes of both sexes, slaves, prisoners and homosexual sex. The work &#8220;On the Spanish War&#8221; describes the events of a front in Spain where an officer had a male concubine (<em>concubinus<\/em>) during the campaign. Sex between the soldiers disturbed the order and moral framework of <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/roman-army\/roman-camp\/\">camp<\/a> life. In the simplest terms, a man retained his masculinity until he was forced into the act. The aspect of homosexuality cannot be ruled out with certainty among the legionaries, who spent a great deal of time in their company. Naturally, there were cases of using the power and dominant position of superiors over privates. Such behaviour is also mentioned in <b>Plutarch<\/b> in &#8220;The Parallel Lives&#8221; in the part devoted to <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/biographies\/gaius-marius\/\">Gaius Marius<\/a>.<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"lesbian-love\"><\/span>Lesbian love<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"ramka_ze_zdjeciem float-right \"\n         style=\"\">\n\n        <div class=\"zdjecie\">\n            <img\n                class=\"ramka-ze-zdjeciem\"\n                src=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/08\/640px-Pompeii_-_Terme_Suburbane_-_Apodyterium_-_Scene_V.jpg\"\n                                alt=\"Fresco from Pompeii showing lesbian love\"\n                width=\"300\"\n                height=\"300\"\n               \n               \n            \/>\n\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/08\/640px-Pompeii_-_Terme_Suburbane_-_Apodyterium_-_Scene_V.jpg\"\n               rel=\"fancybox\"\n               title=\"Fresco from Pompeii showing lesbian love\">\n                <div class=\"iover\">\n                    <div class=\"zicon\">\n                        <i class=\"fa fa-search-plus\"><\/i>\n                    <\/div>\n                <\/div>\n            <\/a>\n        <\/div>\n\n                    <div class=\"opis\">\n                                Fresco from Pompeii showing lesbian love            <\/div>\n        \n        \n    <\/div>\n    Fresco from Pompeii showing lesbian love.<\/p>\n<p>References to lesbian love in the <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/article\/literature-in-ancient-rome\/\">literature<\/a> of the Republic and Empire are extremely rare. There are small mentions in the works of <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/biographies\/ovid\/\">Ovid<\/a>, who advocates for heterosexual love, and in the writer <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/biographies\/lucian-of-samosata\/\">Lucian of Samosata<\/a> (2nd century CE). In Pompeii, wall frescoes depicting a couple of women during the act and graffiti emphasizing same-sex desire have been found. In Rome, various terms were used for lesbian: <em>hetairistria<\/em>, <em>tribas<\/em>, <em>lesbia<\/em>, <em>tribas<\/em>, <em>fricatrix<\/em> and <em>virago<\/em>.<\/p>\n<p>Lesbian love was unacceptable because it was read as a usurpation by one of the women of the role of a man, which was an attack on the social structure. According to the Romans, the necessary attribute for sexual intercourse was the <b><a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/curiosities\/phallus-symbol-in-roman-and-greek-world\/\">phallus<\/a><\/b>, which lesbians had to replace with accessories in the form of today&#8217;s dildos. Moreover, the Romans emphasized that during a love affair between two women, only one could feel pleasure. It was also emphasized that lesbians were distinguished by larger genitalia.<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"the-time-of-christianity\"><\/span>The time of Christianity<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The situation of homosexuals in ancient Rome began to change at the beginning of the 3rd century CE when Emperor Philip the Arab banned male <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/roman-society\/marriage-and-love-life-in-ancient-rome\/prostitution-in-ancient-rome\/\">prostitution<\/a>. In this century, further steps were taken to end homosexuality, including an absolute ban on gay marriage. With the <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/curiosities\/adoption-in-roman-world\/\">adoption<\/a> of <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/roman-religion\/christianization-of-ancient-rome\/\">Christianity<\/a> as the official <a href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/roman-religion\/\">religion<\/a> of the state, homosexuality has become a socially unacceptable element for good. In 326 CE, <a title=\"Constantine the Great\" href=\"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/biografie\/konstantyn-wielki\/\">Constantine the Great<\/a> introduced the death penalty for homosexual acts, leading to persecution and the disappearance of sexual freedom. The policy of Constantine the Great in this matter was continued by the later Byzantine emperor Justinian I.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"featured_media":36332,"template":"","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"kategorie_artykulow":[113],"class_list":["post-98329","artykuly","type-artykuly","status-publish","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","kategorie_artykulow-society"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/artykuly\/98329","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/artykuly"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/artykuly"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/artykuly\/98329\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/36332"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=98329"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"kategorie_artykulow","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/imperiumromanum.pl\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/kategorie_artykulow?post=98329"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}