Chapters
Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (born 138 BCE., died 78 BCE) – leader, politician, dictator and favorite of the gods. He honestly believed that the grace of deities was resting on him and that he was endowed with Felicitas – happiness. This was evidenced by numerous prophecies, dreams and extraordinary events appearing in his life. Sulla had many divine patrons who supported him from the beginning of his career, leading him to the heights of power. This article is designed to trace the most important events in Sulla’s life, related to divine patrons and unusual signs.
About the ancestors
Sulla came from the patrician Cornelii family. This family was divided into many branches of gens. Gens is a family organization, bringing together several families, descended from one common ancestor 1. Of the entire mass of gens Cornelia, Sulla came from the branch that was the least distinguished. Sulia’s ancestors were not well-known figures. His oldest known ancestor, Publius Cornelius Rufinus was known as a dictator from 334 BCE. Rufinus’ son of the same name was consul in 290 BCE. He became famous in the war with the Samnites, playing a significant role. He served as consul twice and, like his father, became a dictator. His fame quickly turned to infamy when Rufinus was expelled from the senate. The reason was the possession of silver plates, exceeding the weight permitted by law2. After the younger Rufinus, later members of the family lived in more modest conditions, and the political importance of the family declined. The first member to bear the surname Sulla was Publius Cornelius Sulla, priest of Jupiter (ca. 250 BCE). His son, also Publius Cornelius Sulla, was a praetor who organized the first games Ludi Apollinares in 212 BCE. The Sulla family especially worshiped Apollo, as did Sulla himself. Apollo became the patron of the Cornelii family. Little is known about Sulla’s father, Lucius Cornelius. Earlier ancestors did not achieve great fame over the generations. The titular Lucius Cornelius Sulla was to change everything.
Young Years
Sulla’s exact childhood is not known. One story from when he was an infant has survived. One day, a nurse was carrying a baby, walking through the streets of Rome. On her way, she met a mysterious woman who said: “The child will be a source of happiness for you and the state“. After these words, she disappeared3. Young Sulla, considering that he came from a patrician family, received a thorough education. A relatively comfortable life became complicated when his father died, leaving no bequest to his son in his will4. Poverty overtook Sulla. In the patrician circle, he became practically a nobody. This life situation was to play a huge role in shaping his character.
Where does the nickname come from?
The nicknames, in Roman usage, were related to physical characteristics. There is much speculation about Sulla’s nickname. It is believed to come from the Latin word sura meaning calf. Doubts also surround the etymology supposedly derived from the Sibyl and the connection with Ludi Apollinares. Plutarch of Chaeronea states that the nickname Sulla was an allusion to his pale, rough complexion5. Sulla is known to have had skin problems, as well as reddish-gold hair and blue eyes that inspired fear and admiration6.
Praetoria and Apollo
During his term as city praetor in 97 BCE, Sulla organized the famous games Ludi Apollinares. The celebration was carried out on a grand scale. For the first time during the games, wild animals were presented without a leash, all to please the people. During the games, the new praetor paid great homage to Apollo, just as his ancestor had done. Sulla honored Apollo not only as the protector of his family. He considered the god to be his personal patron, to whom he turned in times of crisis7. He privileged him above other gods, which he demonstrated more than once. The games he organized were not only for the amusement of the people, but also to pay proper homage to the god.
Cappadocia – prophecy
After completing his praetorship, Sulla was sent to Cilicia, where he was probably entrusted with the task of fighting pirates8. Later, he received a new mission in Cappadocia, consisting of restoring to the throne Ariobarzanes, who had been expelled by the king of Pontus Mithridates VI. An unusual situation is known from this period. It concerned a Chaldean seer who carefully observed Sulla’s face and movements. On this basis, he predicted that Sulla should receive the greatest power and become the greatest man9. These words made a huge impression on him. In his Memoirs he boasted of a second prophecy, according to which he was to die at the height of his fame. All the seer’s words confirmed him in the belief that he was a man of felicitas, or lucky.
What exactly is felicitas?
For the Romans, felicitas was not just happiness. The concept of felicitas was seen as a personal trait that accompanied the recipient until death. The gift of happiness could be received by a person virtus, i.e. a person with moral virtue, courage 10. A virtuous husband successively receives grace and bona fortuna (success) from the gods. At the very end, for his good and courageous services, he receives felicitas. It does not end with the grace of the deities. It was believed that individual gods favored the distinguished person, watched over him and supported him, became his patrons. The gods communicated with man through dreams, prophecies and signs. Lucius Cornelius Sulla had such experiences and approach. One of his patrons was Apollo, as was Fortuna, Sulla considered himself a child of fortune11. The belief in the power of the gods remained with him always. This is where his later nickname Felix (the Happy) came from.
May Bellona
Arriving in Cappadocia, Sulla became more familiar with the local cult of Ma, a fierce, bloody goddess, whom the Romans identified with the goddess of war Bellona12. He became more interested in this cult, and Bellona, right after Apollo, became Sulla’s patroness. The goddess of war was supposed to support the future dictator in war matters and reveal various signs to him.
Unusual signs
During the war with the allies in 90 BCE, Sulla, setting off to war, saw an unusual phenomenon. Near the temple of Laverna (the goddess of thieves), the earth split open and a great flame burst from the depths, reaching the sky13. This sign was defined as prodigia. Prodigia are unusual signs, often characterized by a sudden flame or the appearance of a snake14. The haruspices, interpreting these prodigia, made prophecies that a man of exceptional appearance would take power in the state. Sulla guessed and deeply believed that it was him.
Another incident took place in the city of Nola. This city was the main base of the rebel Italians, Sulla was tasked with taking the city. During the siege of Nola, a sacrifice was made on the altar, to ensure success. While the sacrifice was being made, a snake emerged from under the altar. The haruspex accompanying it will confirm that it was a sign of victory15.
March on Rome
In the fateful year of 88 BCE, Sulla decided to march on Rome. The decision to take up arms was caused by the treatment he received from his political opponents Gaius Marius and Sulpicius. He was stripped of his command in the Mithridatic War, which made Sulla furious, as losing his command could have had a severe impact on his future career. Sulla hesitated to use military force, fearing that he would be labeled a traitor and that his soldiers would follow him. Before these events, Plutarch writes that mysterious signs appeared in Rome, announcing that a civil war was coming.
And signs from above had already announced this, various strange signs. A fire spontaneously broke out from the poles on which the emblems of the banners are carried, and then it was difficult to extinguish it. Then the ravens led three of their young somewhere on the road and there pecked them, and carried the remaining remains back to the nest. […] The strangest thing, however, was that in a cloudless and clear sky, the sound of a trumpet could be heard, emitting a prolonged, sharp and piercing sound, so that everyone at this uncanny sign went mad with terror […]16.
This was not the end of the signs. The Senate, gathered at a session at the temple of Bellona, reported to the prophets what they had seen. Before the eyes of the gathered, a sparrow flew in, carrying a field cricket in its beak. It left one part of the insect, took the other and flew away. The interpreters of the divine signs saw in this the threat of internal conflicts17.
Sulla, still torn by uncertainty, awaited the divine response. The prophecies were made, although they were favorable, but Sulla was not left with fear. Soon he received a more precise assurance of victory. In a dream, the goddess Bellona appeared to him. The goddess gave him a thunderbolt and ordered him to strike his enemies with it 18. The divine vision gave him the courage to march on Rome in arms. He managed to regain his command and defeat his enemies: Gaius Marius and the tribune of the people Sulpicius. Sulla did not consider himself a usurper, but a defender of Roman law and his rights.
Mithridatic War VI, 87 BCE – Venus
During his expedition to war with Mithridates, Sulla had another dream in which the goddess Venus appeared to him in full armor, leading his army. Wanting to learn the meaning of his dream, he went to the oracle at Delphi. He was told that Apollo wanted Venus to become his patroness as well19. From that moment on, Sulla became more interested in Venus, the goddess whom the Romans considered the mother of the Roman people.
Sulla deeply believed in the help of the gods, that he was not afraid to take the treasures of the oracle in Delphi. He explained his actions by the consent of Apollo himself. In Greece, Sulla widely presented his image as the favorite of the gods, he also took the nickname Epaphroditos – the favorite of Aphrodite.
After winning the Battle of Chaeronea in 86 BCE, Sulla erected two magnificent monuments. One commemorating his Greek allies, the other with the names of Mars, Victoria, and Venus in memory of his success20. Sulla soon received another message from the gods. The oracle of Trophonius of Lebadea predicted to the general that he would fight another battle near Chaeronea. The beautiful figure of Zeus was said to have appeared to the woman21. This prophecy, like all others, turned out to be true for Sulla.
In his Memoirs Sulla was to describe an encounter with a creature resembling a satyr near Apollonia. When attempted to communicate with it, it made loud noises resembling a goat22. Sulla took this as a bad sign, especially since he had scores to settle in Italy. His opponents also included Lucius Cornelius Cinna, a consul who had previously supported Gaius Marius.
Back to Italy. The Road to Dictatorship
At the beginning of 83 BCE, Sulla’s fleet reaches Italy. After landing in Taranto, Sulla ordered a prophecy to be made from the entrails of animals. It was noticed that the liver of an animal resembled a laurel wreath23. Near the town of Silvium, Sulla was accosted by a slave. Inspired by the goddess Bellona, the slave brought him a prophecy of victory, but also warned that if he did not hurry, the Capitol would burn24. This prophecy came true. On July 6, the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol burned down. The battle in Rome was inevitable.
Battle of the Kolin Gate 82 BCE and the dictatorship
During the most decisive battle of Lucius Cornelius’ career, Sulla demonstrated his faith in his patron Apollo. He always carried a golden statue of the god with him. He took it out and during the crisis offered prayers to him, praying fervently for victory25.
Sulla was the winner. Nothing stood in his way to become the master of Rome. The time of bloody proscriptions also came for the eternal city26. The Senate passed a resolution to officially recognize Sulla’s nickname Epaphroditos, or beloved by Aphrodite27. He had previously used this nickname during the war with Mithridates. Sulla also began to use the nickname Felix, which was more understood in the Roman circle. Sulla carried out several reforms. He rebuilt the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill and the temple of Fortune in Preneste28. He also founded many other temples. All the prophecies that Sulla heard came true. He stood at the highest level of power. According to Roman custom, Sulla gave back one tenth of the spoils seized from the war with Mithridates. He gave the booty in gratitude to Hercules. Sulla probably worshipped Hercules with great reverence as a god who ensures victory29.
Sulla’s luck did not abandon him until his death. The dictator was aware of his end. The Chaldean had already predicted it to him years ago, mentioning that Sulla would die on the threshold of power. In his Memoirs Sulla described a dream in which his son died before him and asked him to join him 30. Memoirs have not survived to this day. Small fragments have survived. The Memoirs were referred to by, among others, Plutarch of Chaeronea. When writing his work, Sulla wanted to explain and sanctify his actions, emphasizing the blessing he had. He believed that contact with the gods was a natural consequence of the gift he had. He also used his work for political purposes, to build up his image. However, Sulla always had a deep sense of faith in his patrons. With the help of Apollo, Fortune, Bellona, Venus and other gods, he believed that all his actions would succeed. Lucius Cornelius Sulla was and remains a complex and controversial figure.
