Chapters
The ancient Romans maintained trade and diplomatic relations with many countries and peoples; sometimes they fought naturally wars. With the development of the Empire, Roman society was plunged into luxury. Amazing products, exotic animals, sophisticated spices and beautiful materials were brought to Rome. This was best emphasized by Pliny the Elder, a Roman writer from the 1st century CE:
And by the lowest reckoning India, China and the Arabian peninsula take from our empire 100 million sesterces every year – that is the sum which our luxuries and our women cost us.
– Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 12.84
Kingdom of Kush
South of Egypt, the kingdom of Kush, with its capital at Meroe, had for centuries consolidated its power, occupying what is now Sudan and Nubia. Its location assured him of great commercial importance due to the demand for all products that came from Inner Africa (minerals, spices, ivory, gold, precious wood) and from India. The Kushite rulers also reigned in Egypt (Dynasty XXV) between the 8th and 7th centuries BCE until they were driven out by the Assyrians.
The historian and geographer Strabo tells about the conflicts between “Ethiopians” and the Romans in the 1st century BCE, which broke out in Thebes due to the imposition of a new tax, and were calmed down by the prefect Cornelius Gallus. It was not until 29 BCE that Rome accepted the Kushite rulers under its protection, at a time when a buffer state was created between Nubia and Egypt, entrusted to a faithful prince of Rome. However, this concerned a premature balance: taking advantage of the displacements of Roman troops in the following years, the Ethiopians again crossed the border to the north. The Kushites, 30,000 men, attacked Egypt (then under Roman occupation). They seized Elephantine, Syene and File. However, their successes did not last long. Prefect Petronius responded with punitive campaigns, recaptured the cities and chased the Kushites to the former capital – Napata, which he took by storm. Ultimately, peace was negotiated in Samos between Augustus and the queen’s mother Kandake (Candace) Amanirenas. Thousands of Ethiopian slaves were thrown into Roman markets, but the Ethiopians also imprisoned many. The destruction of the capital did not discourage Kandake from organizing further expeditions against the Roman state. In 22 BCE, large Kushite forces moved in with the intention of attacking Qasr Ibrim. Informed in time, Petronius marched south and prepared the city’s defence. Although we do not know about the battle itself, it is certain that the Kushites at one point sent envoys to negotiate peace. The Kushites managed to negotiate a treaty favourable to them, which provided for an increase in trade.
Historiography preserves the memory of one more Roman expedition during the reign of Nero, but this one seems to have had more economic and research intentions than military (conquest). The Kushites as a state began to lose their strength around the 1st-2nd century CE, after continuous fights with the Roman army stationed in Egypt. Gradual economic regression, the decline of the traditional economy and the development of Christianity led to the disintegration of the Kusyce state by the mid-6th century CE.
Garamantes
The Garamantes were a North African Berber people, probably descended from southern Libya, from around the 5th century BCE to the second half of the 7th century CE in what is now the Sahara, in the lands now called Fazzan.
The first information about them is given in his “The Histories” by Herodotus, where he notes that it was “… an exceedingly great nation, who sow in earth which they have laid on the salt”1. Their headquarters were to be located about 30 days south of the Lotophagi, who in turn were to occupy the areas on the Libyan coast. They were to breed oxen with curved horns so that they only grazed backwards to avoid burrowing them on the ground.
The hallmark of Garamants were light horse-drawn chariots on which they traversed the desert to raid black Troglodytes. They were probably the ancestors of today’s Tubu inhabiting the Tibesti Mountains. The purpose of these trips was probably the acquisition of slaves and their sale on the Mediterranean markets. The appearance of the chariots is confirmed by numerous examples of rock art, which is also an invaluable help in reconstructing the course of trade routes. The capital of the Garamant family was Garama, which is currently an archaeological site located about 150 km from the