Chapters
| Names | Gaius Messius Decius |
|---|---|
| Ruled as | Imperator Caesar Gaius Messius Quintus Decius Traianus Augustus |
| Reign | September 249 – June 251 CE |
| Born | c. 200 CE |
| Died | June 251 CE |
Gaius Messius Decius was born around 200 CE and reigned as Roman Emperor from September 249 to June 251 CE. He ruled until his death as Imperator Caesar Gaius Messius Quintus Decius Traianus Augustus. He came from a wealthy Roman family residing near Sirmium in Illyria, thus becoming the first Illyrian emperor in Roman history.
Raise to power
He was raised in an environment deeply attached to ancient Roman traditions. Gradually, he climbed the ladder of his career. He served in the Roman Senate and governed the province several times, most likely Lower Moesia and Tarraconensis in Spain. His wife, Etruscilla, came from a wealthy family with ancient Etruscan traditions. With her, he had two sons: the elder Herennius and the younger Hostilian. He rose to prominence in Roman politics in 248 CE when Emperor Philip the Arab sought help from senators amid numerous usurpations. Decius was tasked with reassuring the emperor and dissuading him from abdicating. As a reward, he likely received command over the legions along the Danube. His mission was to defeat the invading Goths and address the rebels who supported the usurper Claudius Pacatianus. He proved highly effective, earning great respect from soldiers, who allegedly proclaimed him emperor against his will.
When he became a usurper, he corresponded with Emperor Philip, promising to abdicate the imperial title upon arriving in Rome, in exchange for a guarantee of safety. Philip the Arab refused and blocked the path of Decius’s advancing army. In September 249 CE, the Battle of Verona took place, where Philip lost his life. After the defeat of the legitimate emperor, the Praetorian Guard murdered his twelve-year-old son, Philip II (who held the title of Augustus). Decius’s authority was immediately legitimised by the Senate.
Soon after beginning his rule, Decius adopted the cognomen Traianus for propagandistic purposes, inspired by the history of Rome at the end of the 1st century CE, when the great and victorious Trajan returned to Rome from the Danube regions—much like Decius later did. This was also a programmatic declaration, signalling his hope for good cooperation with the Roman Senate, akin to Trajan’s era.
Persecutions
In 249 CE, Decius arrived in Rome, where the atmosphere was positive due to several favorable events. First, traditional games and gifts were distributed upon the ruler’s arrival in the capital. Herennius and Hostilian (the emperor’s sons) were elevated to the rank of Caesars. One of the eastern usurpers, Marcus Iotapianus, was defeated. Despite minor unrest in Gaul, the situation was very favorable, and it was even decided to discharge some veteran soldiers.
In these circumstances, Decius turned his attention to internal affairs, targeting Christianity. He saw the strong independence of Christian communities from Roman authorities. Christian sources suggest that Decius initiated persecutions to emphasize his opposition to the policies of his predecessor, Philip (who was even rumored to be the first Christian emperor).
At the turn of 249 and 250 CE, an imperial edict was issued, ordering citizens to demonstrate their faith in traditional deities and loyalty to state authorities by making sacrifices. This obligation did not apply to Jews, as Roman belief held that religious duties should be performed according to ancestral traditions. Thus, while Jews had long functioned in harmony with this belief, Christians—often converts from traditional Roman cults—were seen as a major threat to Pax Deorum. Notably, although Decius’s edict clearly aimed to destroy Christianity, it did not explicitly mention Christians. Sacrifices were to be made under the supervision of specially appointed commissions.
To the Commission selected to oversee the sacrifice. From Aurelia Ammonous, daughter of Mystus, from the district of Moeris, priestess of the god Petesuchos, the great, powerful, and immortal, and priestess of the gods in the district of Moeris. I have offered sacrifices to the gods all my life, and now again, in accordance with the decree and in your presence, I have made an offering, performed a libation, and consumed the sacred offerings. I request that you attest to this below.
– Example certificate (issued to a pagan priestess) for making sacrifices to the Roman gods, Wikipedia (PL)
The system of punishments was gradual. Officially, the goal was not to kill the godless but to bring them to repentance. Thus, the first punishment was imprisonment. If imprisonment failed to break someone, they faced confiscation of property, followed by exile. The fourth and final punishment was death. Decius’s persecutions covered the entire empire. They were conducted consistently and meticulously, resulting in thousands of victims, far surpassing the earlier, the notorious persecutions of Nero.
Among the many victims were the bishops of Rome, Jerusalem, and Antioch. The greatest Christian philosopher of the time, Origen, fell seriously ill in prison. From a surviving letter by Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria, we learn how the persecutions were conducted in that city. He claimed to have survived by divine intervention. For the first four days after the prefect read the edict, the bishop remained in his home. The officer tasked with capturing him, assuming the bishop had fled, searched many unconventional places, overlooking his house. Only after these days, allegedly inspired by God, did the bishop flee with his children and many brothers. However, the persecutions in this city were particularly dramatic, as Alexandria had already been a scene of religious conflicts before the edict was issued.
During the persecutions, many Christians renounced their faith. Some made sacrifices as ordered, others merely burned incense, and some bribed commissions to issue the required certificates of participation in the cult. Among those who abandoned their faith were many priests, including even the Bishop of Ephesus.
The persecutions of Decius are linked to a Christian legend about seven youths who were walled up in a cave where they had taken refuge from their pursuers. A century later, during the reign of the Christian emperor Constantius II, they emerged from the cave, still young and in the same condition as when they were sealed inside a hundred years earlier.
Situation on the Danube
After Decius marched on Rome in the spring of 249 CE following his victory over the Goths, the border was left virtually unprotected. The Carpi and Goths took advantage of this, attacking in early 250 CE. The former targeted Dacia, while the latter, led by Kniva, invaded Lower Moesia. The situation was dire. The Goths besieged Novae and later Philippopolis. Upon hearing this, Decius sent his elder son, Herennius, there. Fortunately for the inhabitants of Novae, the governor of Lower Moesia, Trebonianus Gallus (later emperor), successfully intervened, ending the Gothic siege. However, the Goths then moved toward Nicopolis. Panic spread, and even the defense of Thermopylae was considered. Amid these tensions, Decius himself headed to the region, leaving his younger son, Hostilian, in the capital. Due to Hostilian’s youth, Senator Publius Licinius Valerianus (later emperor) was assigned to assist him.
The emperor’s arrival not only boosted morale but also yielded tangible results. A great battle was fought against the Goths at Nicopolis, resulting in a complete Roman victory. The invaders retreated southward. The Romans pursued, but their overconfidence led them into a trap at Beroea. The resulting defeat incapacitated them for six months. Meanwhile, Philippopolis remained under siege, and with news of the emperor’s defeat, hope for relief was lost. In desperation, negotiations with the Goths began. To conduct these effectively, the Roman side needed someone with authority. Thus, the commander Titus Julius Priscus compelled his soldiers to proclaim him emperor. Although this was technically usurpation, it was not intended to threaten Decius but to resolve the dire situation. Priscus agreed to surrender Philippopolis to the Goths in exchange for safe passage. The city became a stage for murders and looting, with many, including senators, enslaved. Priscus was later killed.
The tragedies of that year significantly weakened Decius’s position. This was exploited by Julius Valens Licinianus, who declared himself emperor in Rome. However, his usurpation was short-lived and did not encompass the entire capital. This was due to Valerian, who assisted Hostilian. Both the usurpations of Priscus and Licinianus further weakened Decius’s authority. Christians benefited, as these events led to a reduction in the intensity of persecutions. On the other hand, Decius, aware of his deteriorating position, sought to secure the future for himself and his sons by elevating them to the rank of Augusti.
Death
The beginning of 251 CE was highly unfavorable for Decius: the Goths were rampaging, and he lacked the capacity to resist them. However, a plan was devised to block their retreat, especially as they would be burdened with loot. Decius thus engaged Kniva in the Battle of Abrittus in June 251 CE. Initially, fortune favored the Romans, but the situation worsened when Herennius (Augustus) was killed by an arrow. Reportedly, when Decius’s entourage urged him to halt the battle to pay proper respects to the deceased emperor, Decius refused, saying that only one soldier had died. The battle continued, and a significant Roman force pursuing the Goths became trapped in swamps. Among the many who perished there was Emperor Decius himself.
In Roman historiography, Decius is remembered positively. Ancient authors describe him as an honest and devoted emperor. He was the first emperor confirmed to have died in battle against an external enemy.
