Theater performances in ancient Rome

Chapters

The theatre of ancient Rome was a very diverse and interesting form of art. There were various types of festivals, street theatres, acrobatics and large theatrical performances, such as comedies by Plautus or tragedies by Seneca the Younger. Although the Romans attached great importance to tradition and their own creativity, with the process of Hellenization in the 3rd century BCE, Greek works began to have an increasing influence on Roman drama. The Greek influence on Roman culture resulted from the fact that the Romans conquered the Greek colonies in 270-240 BCE. The influence of Hellenistic culture could be seen throughout the Western Empire, around the Mediterranean Sea, and even reaching Britain in time. In this way, Roman performances and dramas gained variety, expression and sophistication like never before.

In ancient Rome’s stage work, there are several characteristic varieties of theatrical arts (they are arranged in order of popularity among the Romans):

Mime – short, often improvised life scene, acting;
Pantomime – a silent show in which the actors used gesture and movement, not avoiding bluntness and cruelty. The actor (pantomimus) was usually a side character of the performance, and his task was to dance, sing;
Fabula atellana – a folk Italian farce in which actors performed in masks characteristic for each character;
Fabula palliata – a comedy play in which the Romans make fun of the Greeks (the authors of the palliata were, among others, Plautus and Terentius);
Fabula togata – a comedy play in which the Romans make fun of themselves;
Fabula cothurnata – a Greek tragedy;
Fabula praetexta – a Roman-style tragedy.

Virtual tour of Greek and Roman theatres

Formation of the Roman theatre

The Roman historian Titus Livius mentions that the Romans first encountered theatre in the 4th century BCE when actors performed theatrical performances in Etruscan. The historian Richard Beacham claims, however, that the Romans had contact with theatrical art long before the aforementioned contact of the Romans with Etruscan actors. We can speak of Roman drama as such since 240 BCE, when Livius Andronicus – a Greek who became the first Roman poet – on ludi Romani between September 15 and 18, 240 BCE, he staged Greek comedy and tragedy for the first time in his Latin rewrite and this date is considered to be the arbitrary beginning of Roman literature. On the basis of the preserved titles, it can be seen that he mainly processed the plays of Sophocles and Euripides. In 204 BCE, at the behest of the pontiffs, Livius Andronicus composed a choral song to appease the gods. It was sung by a choir of twenty-seven virgins.

In 235 BCE another Roman poet, Gnaeus Naevius, staged his first drama in Rome. His plays were usually remakes of Greek culture. He also staged his own Roman comedies (fabula togata). 35 titles of these plays and about 140 fragments have reached our times. He introduced fabula praetexta, a national tragedy, to Roman literature. Nevius was the author of the first Roman tragedies based on mythological (Romulus) and historical (the victory over the Gauls – Clastidium) themes. He wrote Bellum Poenicum – an epic about the First Punic War (7 books) which influenced “Aeneid” Virgil.

Gnaeus Nevius exposed himself (through malicious allusions in his works) to the family of Cecilius Metell and Scipio Africanus. He was imprisoned in 206 BCE and sentenced to a pillory. After his release, he settled in the African city of Utica, where he died. Only small fragments and titles of plays remain from his work.

Both Andronicus and Nevius contributed to the Roman drama. The former was known for his tragedy, while the latter made comedies. Their successors usually followed one of these paths, which contributed to their intensive development. By the beginning of the 2nd century BCE, Roman drama had already had an established position in Roman culture. Moreover, a “guild” of Roman playwrights (collegium poetarum) was formed.

All Roman comedies that have survived are the so-called fabula palliata (comedies based on Greek prototypes) and come from the pen of two playwrights: Plautus and Terentius. By recreating the Greek originals, both of them gave up the role of the choir in the piece, dividing the work into episodes. Moreover, they introduced music during dialogues (1/?of Plautus ‘dialogues and 2/?of Terentius’). The action takes place mainly in the streets. Plautus, the more popular of the two, wrote (between 205 and 184 BCE) mainly farces filled with intelligent and playful dialogues. The texts were written in a blunt language, close to the colloquial Latin of that period, presenting many realistic situations from the life of antiquity.

Terentius, in turn, wrote in the years 166-160 BCE His 6 comedies have survived to our times. The themes of Terentius’ works were dominated by the love experiences and elation of Athenian youth in love with hetter; and the constant motives of the action were: separation, finding and recognition. Terentius was a generation younger than Plautus and never managed to overshadow him with fame and popularity. However, while Plautus’ plays were eagerly played in theatres, Terentius’ plays were included in the school reading list quite early in Roman education and remained in this role until the end of antiquity. This provided them with enough copies of circulation to keep them alive to our day.

No Roman tragedy has survived to our day, despite the fact that it was a popular form of drama. Historians know three names of early playwrights: Ennius, Pacuvius and Accius. The tragedies of Seneca the Younger and an unknown author survived the times of the empire. From Seneca’s oeuvre we know 9 plays, each of which is fabula crepidata (taken from Greek originals). His works include:

Hercules Furens
Hercules Oetaeus
Troades
Phoenissae
Medea
Phaedra
Oedipus
Agamemno
Thyestes

Seneca’s tragedies were probably non-stage works, intended only for reading or recitation. The authorship of the tragedy by Seneca Octavia presented in the collections is being questioned. Currently, most researchers believe that it was created after the death of its alleged author.

Historians do not know who is the author of the only surviving example of fabula praetexta (a work based on the Roman original).

Heroes of Roman comedies

Adulescens – young, rich, not too brave, but a hero in love. He has a tendency to mourn his fate and expects support. Another hero often has to act on his behalf. His father is an old man (senex) whom he fears but does not respect. He wears a dark wig and his clothes are usually scarlet.
Senex – the old man has several incarnations. As a father, he is too strict or too submissive. As a lover, she introduces problems in relationships with her son, slave and wife. The woman he loves is usually his son’s chosen one and is definitely younger than him. He never manages to get a woman and he is controlled by his wife. Sometimes he is a family friend who helps young people (adulescens). He is often mean, wearing plain white clothing with long sleeves.
Leno – manages the lupanarium. He often has to deal with adulescens going to his brothel. He is amoral and only interested in money. He dresses in a tunic with a money purse to the side and is often bald.
Miles gloriosus – literally “braggart soldier”. He loves himself more than anyone else. He sees himself as a beautiful and brave legionary when he is actually stupid, cowardly and gullible. He is usually in love with the same woman as adulescens. He wears a tunic with long sleeves and has curly hair.
Parasitus – a parasite that lives only for itself. Often seen as a beggar asking for a meal he is usually denied. He is lying for his own gain. He dresses in a long black robe with long double sleeves.
Servi – about half of the actors are slaves. They often have most monologues. They are not typical slaves from Roman houses. Servus callidus or “intelligent slave” is usually very talkative. Most of the time he is faithful to his masters – more adulescens than senex. It is often the source of the action. He is dressed in a tunic and wears scarves.
Ancilla – A maid or nurse of undefined age. Its role comes down to presenting information or helping other heroes. She is a