Roman triumvirates

In ancient Rome, the term “triumvirate” (from trium viri – “three men”) was used to describe a college made up of three officials elected to perform certain tasks. Two such meetings have gone down in the history of Rome. Both took place during the so-called crisis of the Roman republic and decided about the division of power between influential politicians. In fact, these were agreements bypassing the senate, which was losing its prerogatives.

First triumvirate

Three powerful politicians: Pompey, Crassus and Caesar entered into the first triumvirate.

In 70 BCE, the relationship between Mark Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompey– politicians of great influence – began to deteriorate significantly. This was due to the fact that they both took over consulates and constituted the most important conglomerate in the Roman republic. Despite some common, earlier winning initiatives, incl. to restore the rights of people’s tribunes (the dictator Sulla stripped this office of all rights except ius auxiliandi – the right to object to officials’ orders), both Crassus and Pompey began to feel more and more hostile to each other. The situation was made worse by the fact that they both took up the same office and competed for influence.

During this time, Gaius Julius Caesar was trying to match both Crassus and Pompey in power. For this purpose, he carried out a victorious campaign in Spain, where he won large tracts of land for Rome. The successes whetted Caesar’s appetite, and he started running for the office of consul. Unexpectedly, however, his candidacy was blocked by Mark Porcjusa Catoin 61 BCE. Then the ambitious commander began to seek wider agreement with the two strongest men of Rome. With Crassus – Rome’s richest citizen – Caesar was in alliance with him since 65 BCE, when he supported his proposal to subordinate Egypt to Rome. He got involved with Pompey through his daughter Julia, whose hand was given to him. The powerful alliance that Caesar made gave him a chance to implement his plans. Crassus had a huge fortune and guaranteed the support of the Equestrian class, while Pompey had numerous contacts in the Senate and the army. The agreement was officially concluded in 60 BCE, and a year later Caesar assumed the coveted post of consul (59 BCE).

The triumvirate was kept secret from the Senate until Caesar’s proposal for agrarian reform¹was blocked by Rome’s highest legislative body. Caesar then decided to make a speech to the people’s assembly, in which the agreement of Caesar, Crassus and Pompey was indirectly revealed. The Caesar Act passed, and the demagogic Publius Clodius Pulcher was appointed people’s tribune. In this way, the hostile triumvirs Cicero and Cato the Younger were stopped and temporarily removed from the political scene.

It was already known in Rome that there were three politicians in power who would not be opposed by anyone. The Senate was empty, but Caesar was not prevented from passing new bills. One of them was to grant him five years of governorship in Pre-Alpine Gaul and Illyria with the border on the Rubicon River and Narbonne Gaul. Especially the latter tempted Caesar with the possibility of conducting much-needed war campaigns and also obtaining money to pay off his enormous debts.

In 56 BCE, the bonds between the triumvirs loosened. Caesar decided to invite the two Romans to a secret meeting in Lucca (Pre-Alpine Gaul), where they were to jointly adopt a further strategy of action. This meeting de facto renewed the alliance. It was agreed that Pompey and Crassus would receive a consulate for 55 BCE. They pledged that when they took office they would extend Caesar’s command in Gaul for 5 years. At the end of his consulate, Crassus was given a wealthy Syria that he wanted to use to conquer the Parthia. Pompey, in turn, was to keep Spain in his hands in absentia.

The alliance allowed three politicians to take complete control of Rome’s political scene; as it turned out, however, it could not be permanent. This was due to the fact that Pompey still hated Crassus, and he envied Caesar his successes in Gaul. To make matters worse, the Battle of Carrhae saw the spectacular defeat of the Romans and the death of one of the triumvirs – Crassus. This event finally shattered the “alliance of the three”. Pompey, who was in Rome, and who was governing Spain through his subordinates, gradually “moved away” from Caesar. The proof of this was his marriage to the daughter of Scipio Metellus Nazyki, a representative of the patrician and old part of the Senate, which took place after the unfortunate death of Caesar’s daughter